We need only explicitly show our children how this code works, and most of them will, with delight, quickly catch on. Here are some more minimal pairs that I thought of for /f/ and /v/: vine and fine, veal and feel. CHEAP easily becomes a sight word because his brain (like all brains) craves logic and because making connections is how brains work. They can not hear the difference between certain similar phonemes (speech sounds), and as a consequence, they can not hear the difference between certain words. Following is a list of the 44 phonemes along with the letters of groups of letters that represent those sounds. Most of our children do not learn even 100 sight words per year in this manner. But if the variation is not meaningful, not contrastive, our mental grammar does not treat those different segments as different phonemes. Thats a blink of an eye in evolutionary terms and too recent for evolution to have developed specialized brain circuits for handling symbolic speech whose characters (letters) enter the brain via the eyes instead of the ears. city. This, Sight words are clearly useful, but how are they created? Hei, you say that Portuguese has got 14 vowels 9 diphthongs 23 consonants total 37. how many phonemes in the word sigh? Phonemic Awareness is the awareness of the smallest sounds in speech. In a consonant digraph, two consonants stand together to represent a single sound. The following are common examples of blends. Help a bunch of grade twos and myself have put this one aside but would like some clarity. Students with auditory problems may have difficulty: a. hearing sounds in words. A digraph is formed when two consonants come together to create an entirely new sound that is distinctly different from the sounds of the letters independently. The brains Language Center, however, has no built-in circuitry for reading and spelling (cf. These vowels are all transformed into the same sound when an r is attached to the end of them. CH and EA are graphemes that symbolize the phonemes /ch/ and /E/, respectively, in CHEAP. Write words phonetically Sometimes a single phoneme is written with multiple letters (such as the /sh/ in ship ). Use a variety of objects or pictures (use our free Segmenting Picture Cards) together with the robot and robot voice. Like phonology, phonological awareness has nothing to do with the letters in our alphabet it has to do with the sounds in spoken words. Within a given language, some sounds might have slight phonetic differences from each other but still be treated as the same sound by the mental grammar of that language. Conclusion: relying on visual rote-memorization for sight word acquisition would, under the best possible circumstances, equip our children with only 6% of the sight words needed to become skilled readers. 2. She doesnt need to analyze it, decode it, or sound it out. Various letters and letter combinations known as graphemes are used to represent the sounds. {To prepare for literacy] spoken words had to be treated as consisting of component parts, which could then be represented by a much smaller number of . 3 R-Controlled Vowels . In addition, the same sound can be represented using different letters, e.g., the letter c often makes the /s/ sound, e.g. 2. Our question now is, how can we tell if two phonetically different sounds are phonemically contrastive? Children with phoneme awareness know that the spoken word bend contains four phonemes, and that the words pill and map both contain the phoneme /p/; they know that phonemes can be rearranged and substituted to make different words. As you can see, there are many components of phonological awareness: rhyming, alliteration, syllables, concept of word, onset- rime, AND phonemic awareness. Suppose a child comes across an unknown written word, CHEAP for example. Multiple functions of speech and language position in production, such as perceiving, interpreting, storing (remembering), recalling her retrieving, and generating the speech sound system of language. Model. (5.2k) $4.00. When readers can read words from memory rather than by decoding, text reading is greatly facilitated. Thats 23 new words, on average, per school day! 3. How many phonemes in the word shift - 29392552. samahayache9932 samahayache9932 samahayache9932 Rather than reading a good book with a cup of tea in the afternoon, instead Themed Booklists Remember that mental grammar is in the mind we cant observe it directly. The ingenious code that underlies those skills is a human invention which developed only a few thousand years ago. Phoneme List All of those [l]s are a little different from each other, phonetically, but those phonetic differences are not contrastive because they dont lead to a change in meaning, so all of those [l]s are members of a single phoneme category in English. The six long vowel sounds in English are a, e, i, o, u, and oo. The phonetic difference between [f] and [v] is contrastive; it changes the meaning of the word, so we conclude that /f/ and /v/ are two different phonemes. Ive written about the superiority of Synthetic Phonics here and here so I wont repeat those arguments now. Some examples of common digraphs are listed below. Activities should lead to the pairing of phonemes (speech sounds) with graphemes (letters and letter Synthetic Phonics and Phonemic Awareness (blending and segmenting with letters) are inseparable, right from the start of instruction. A diphthong is essentially a digraph with vowelsit is formed when two vowels come together to create a new sound in a single syllable as the sound of the first vowel glides into the second. This is a concept which is related to phonics, but unlike phonics, which is a method of teaching reading, phonetic spelling or phonetic reading is a behavior that young readers exhibit when they are trying to write or read. We also provide articles and worksheets for parents and teachers to provide assistance with spelling, writing and reading. Likewise, a child can phonetically read words child phonetically reading the word two may say "twah", or the child may phonetically read the word laugh in such a way that it sounds like lag or log. Segmenting also helps students spell unfamiliar words (words not yet mapped as sight words).]. So for example, the difference between fan and van is a phonetic difference in voicing. A lots of books about phonics only address the way how the phonemes sound out but never explain why and the rules. Throughout an individual's life, spoken words are constantly being added to his or her phonological and semantic lexicons. Can you think of other minimal pairs that give evidence for the phonemic contrast between /f/ and /v/? In a blend, the sounds from each original letter are still heard, they are just blended quickly and smoothly together. When speaking, we combine phonemes to form a words. Identify the syllables in a word. August 17, 2022 by Hubert Drew. answer choices. Phonology has to do with the ability to hear the difference between different speech sounds (and has nothing to do with letters of the alphabet). Short Vowels pocket chart centers and materials for lots of great picture sorts and center opportunities for CVC words practice! I know that word! General Progression of Phoneme Awareness Skills (K-2) Phonemes are individual speech sounds that are combined to create words in a language system. The 44* Phonemes Following is a list of the 44 phonemes along with the letters of groups of letters that represent those sounds. Top Instructional Task Here is an example of instruction to teach phoneme segmentation skills For example: the teacher places M A N on the board and demonstrates, explicitly, how to smoothly blend the sounds represented by these letters into the spoken word MAN. In English, we have a phonemic category for /l/, so whenever we hear the segment [l] we store it in our memory as that phoneme. Toddlers can easily hear and understand the difference between PET and GET (words differing only in the first phoneme), PET and PAT (differing only in the second), and PET and PEN (differing only in the last phoneme). However, two types, blending and segmenting, are thought to be directly involved in reading and spelling processes. With repeated readings that activate orthographic mapping, written words are retained in memory to support reading and spelling. [Note: The two most prominent researchers in this space are Linnea Ehri and David Share. Children then blend to select the correct object. Phonemes are language-specific. For Share, see here and here.) Each language organizes these meaningful variations in different ways. [Note: Any word encountered by a reader, high-frequency or low, phonetically regular or irregular, can and should become a sight word.]. These connections bond spellings to their pronunciations in memory. (2-11) [Note: If these last two sentences sound familiar, its because Linnea Ehri was one of the Panel members. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Sight Words Game is also on social media. Teaching children to blend the phonemes represented by letters is the equivalent of decoding instruction. (2-41). To recap, phonics is an instructional approach that emphasizes the letter-sound relationships (which letters represent which sounds). (For more information on self-teaching, see here. Language at the speed of sight: how we read, why so many can't, and what can be done about it. Phonemes are taught to young children who have just started to understand the English language. Various types of phoneme manipulations might be taught. And when we hear a syllabic [l], thats not contrastive either, so we put that in the same category. Of these 12 Fry sight words, 9 are completely phonetic and the other 3 have simple exceptions. And kids especially love making weird sounds if their teacher or parent is willing to make those sounds with them. Segmenting words into phonemes helps children to spell unfamiliar words and also helps to retain spellings in memory. (2-21), Programs that focused on teaching one or two PA skills yielded larger effects on PA learning than programs teaching three or more of these manipulations. If the difference between those two sounds leads to a difference in meaning in a given language, then we say that those two sounds contrast in that language. Its a gift resulting from a million years of evolution. I could pronounce the word free with the ordinary high front tense vowel [i]. PA is not acquired for its own sake but rather for its value in helping children understand and use the alphabetic system to read and write. Word families. The phoneme is the basic building block for spoken words. For example, while pointing to each letter in the word sit, you might say, "The first sound is /s/, the next sound is //, and the last sound is /t/." 3. [Note: A third skill, segmenting, is also useful here. Heres how Ehri explains it in one of her many publications: In short, orthographic mapping (automatic sight word formation) will begin to occur as soon as children are able to decode. Who can understand all the jargon that's being tossed around in education these days? Segmentation reinforces letter-sound connections and it allows the spelling of words which have not yet been orthographically mapped. listen to a target sound (phoneme) presented orally determine the word that begins with the target phoneme indicate the word by saying it out loud, signing it, or selecting the appropriate picture or AAC symbol with at least 80% accuracy. Weve already seen one example of a minimal pair: fan and van are identical in every way except for the first segment. Like Phonological Awareness, Phonemic Awareness is an auditory skill. The easiest phoneme awareness task is called blending an adult pronounces a word with a pause between each phoneme (e.g. We spend a lot of time teaching children that the letter M stands for the sound /m/, but we rarely make sure that children understand that words like milk, ham and family all contain the phoneme /m/, or that the difference between man and an is the deletion of the phoneme /m/. So why not have new readers learn all words this way, visually, without regard to sound? The letter u appears twice, so you could just count this once, which would give a total of 7 graphemes. The most obvious way to identify individual graphemes would be to split the word up as follows: b - ea - u - t - i - f - u - l The 'ea' letter combination is acting as a digraph so there's no doubt that this is an individual grapheme. Children are born with a system already in place for acquiring spoken language. v. t. e. Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. How many phonemes is in the word judge? Gravitate toward these pdfs if you want to practice identifying, counting, segmenting, adding, substituting, and deleting, phonemes or the smallest individual sounds in words. However, two types, It is important to note that acquiring phonemic awareness is a means rather than an end. Sight Words, Orthographic Mapping, Phonemic Awareness, Input to this system is via the ears and consists of. And, more than any other delight to be had in the early stages of learning to read, kids love to determine what an unknown word is, all on their own, by decoding it. A sight word, then, is one that a reader instantly and automatically recognizes without conscious effort. The c sound is covered by k sounds in words like crust, crunch, and create and by s sounds in words like cereal, city, and cent (the c is found in the spelling of these words only but does not have its own phoneme). Create your own booklists from our library of 5,000 books! Examples of words whose long vowel sounds do not correspond with their spelling are they, try, fruit, and few. In the last couple of chapters, weve seen lots of ways that sounds can differ from each other: they can vary in voicing, in place and manner of articulation, in pitch or length. Thanks to the following people who graciously offered suggestions as I prepared this essay: Max Coltheart, Pamela Snow, Bob Sweet, Jim Rose, Dylan Wiliam, and Dan Parker. Though there are four letters in the word "ship," there are only three phonemes: sh-iii-p. Create your own lists of fiction and nonfiction childrens books. Even more challenging is phoneme manipulation the adult tells the child to say a word without a particular phoneme (say "boat" without the /t/), or the adult tells the child to add a phoneme to a word to make a new word (What word would you have if you added the phoneme /o/ to the beginning of "pen?"). This is why including letters in the process of teaching children to manipulate phonemes is important. There is no exception in window. A phoneme is something that exists in your mind. What phonemic awareness skills are necessary for a child to become a competent reader and speller? Here, again, is the National Reading Panel: The paradox of reading instruction is this: Decoding is necessary to activate Orthographic Mapping. Phonics programs which explicitly teach blending produce superior results compared to "analytic" programs which generally do not include a blending component It seems plausible that blending may be critical for reading but segmenting for spelling. (p 194), There is strong support for Ehris view that spellings can only be memorized when linked to phonemes detected in pronunciations. Essentials of Linguistics by Catherine Anderson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. The 44 sounds help distinguish one word or meaning from another. Synthetic Phonics, on the other hand, starts with isolated phonemes and blending instruction, leading directly to early decoding ability and Orthographic Mapping. In Italian, a length difference is meaningful. When children spell words the way they sound, they are said to be phonetically spelling for example, the word lion could be phonetically spelled L-Y-N, or the word move could be phonetically spelled M-U-V. Phoneme awareness requires progressive differentiation of sounds in spoken words and the ability to think about and manipulate those sounds. Here are some more examples of words divided into their phonemes: pig has three phonemes: /p/, /iii/, and /g/ chop has three phonemes: /ch/, /ooo/, and /p/ frog has four phonemes: /f/, /rrr/, /ooo/, and /g/ They would be functionally illiterate. The word ''chair'' is also composed of three phonemes, or sounds: /ch/, /a/, /r/. Breaking a word into individual phonemes (sounds) tapping out the number of phonemes (sounds) heard in a word. (2006). Be careful though: SH (no slash marks) is a grapheme that symbolizes the phoneme /sh/ in the word SHED. First, the phonemes represented by a single letter: s, a, t, p i, n, m, d g, o, c e, u, r h, b, f, l j, v, w, x y, z Then the phonemes containing two consonants (know as consonant digraphs): qu, ch, sh, th, th, ng Then there are the digraphs: ai, ee, oa, oo, ar, or, ur, ow, oi, er And finally the trigraphs (phonemes represented by three letters): The five Spanish vowel phonemes are shown in Table 1 below: The separate phonemic status of the five sounds shown in Table 1 can be established by the following five-way minimal contrast: paso 'step' peso 'weight' piso 'apartment' poso 'sediment' puso 'he/she put' 4. Pinpoint the problem a struggling reader is having and discover ways to help. Encode: To hear a spoken word, to segment (or separate) it into all its constituent phonemes, and to assign a grapheme to each of those phonemes. The Phive Phones of Reading by Sebastian Wren, Ph.D. Copyrighted by Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. Note that the 'o' sound is one phoneme. the most common consonant digraphs are: sh, ch, th, and wh. Once mapped, that particular word will forever be easy, not only to read, but to spell. (For Ehri, see here. When phonemic analysis (segmentation) alone is trained (even in conjunction with symbol-sound knowledge), findings are consistently negative. When speaking, we combine phonemes to form a words. Phonogram- a symbol representing a vocal sound. If instead, she first hears the word, its spelling and meaning are immediately available. As you may know, people have search hundreds times for their favorite books like this The 44 Sounds Phonemes Of English , but end up in harmful downloads. /v/ contrasts with /f/ its a different phoneme, so every time you hear that [v], your mind puts it in a different bag, one labelled /v/. Watson, Sue. Sight words are high frequency words that should be read fluently and automatically upon sight; they are among the most common English words and many are not spelled phonetically. . If the connection between spelling, on the one hand, and sound/meaning on the other, is visually rote-memorized, then, when a child comes across an unknown word, he must either guess the words pronunciation (and meaning) or ask someone else what the word says. The consonant phonemes of Spanish If you completed your teacher training in the past two decades and youve never heard of these two authors, your school of education did you a significant disservice. Blending phonemes into words and segmenting words into phonemes contribute directly to learning to read and spell well. In fact, these two phonemic awareness skills contribute more to learning to read and spell well than any of the other activities under the phonological awareness umbrella (National Reading Panel, 2000; Snider, 1995). BLENDING and PHONEME SEGMENTING interventions Where to start on this list: PHONEME BLENDING: Start at top left hand column (off) and move down the list left to right. /b/ /a/ /l/), and the child blends the phonemes together to make the word ("ball"). In addition, phonemic awareness is the ability to blend, segment and manipulate phonemes. 44 Phonemes The 44 Phonemes in English. 4.9. While phonological awareness is a general term describing a child's awareness that spoken words are made up of sounds, phoneme awareness is a specific term that falls under the umbrella of phonological awareness. Children are taught, for example, that the letter N represents the sound /n/, and that it is the first letter in words such as nose, nice and new. If we observe that a difference between two sounds a phonetic difference also leads to a difference in meaning, then we can conclude that the phonetic difference is also a phonemic difference in that language. Should PA training include phoneme manipulations such as deletion, substitution, and reversal? 1. Questions about reading, writing, dyslexia and more, Classroom StrategiesResearch-based teaching strategies, Reading Basics EIGH symbolizes the long A sound in words like EIGHT and NEIGHBOR. In there it says 14 + 4 vowels 49 diphthongs 23 +1 consonants total 90. The reasons why some kids struggle with reading, Target the Problem! To make new words, we just delete or rearrange the phonemes mat becomes man when the phoneme /t/ is replaced with the phoneme /n/, and deleting the phoneme /m/ from man leaves you with the word an. PDF. Phoneme Mapping Activities and Ideas The four non-alphabetic symbols have no possibility of being decoded, yet, when we see them, we instantly hear SEVEN, AT, DOLLAR, and FEMALE. There are 26 letters (21 consonants, 5 vowels) in the English alphabet . Orthographic Mapping: a process which involves making explicit the connections between the graphemes in a written word and the phonemes in its pronunciation. IGH is an example of a 3-letter grapheme. Orthographic Units- a set of conventions for writing a language, including norms of spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation. The five short vowel sounds in English are a, e, i, o, and u. short a: and, as, and after short e: pen, hen, and lend short i: it and in short o: top and hop short u: under and cup Remember that these sounds are not necessarily indicative of spelling. : the two most prominent researchers in this manner fine, veal and feel few thousand years ago Creative Attribution-ShareAlike... For spoken words are clearly useful, but to spell unfamiliar words and segmenting, are thought to directly! Writing and reading create your own lists of fiction and nonfiction childrens books adult pronounces a with. And oo more minimal pairs that give evidence for the first segment ( such as,. More information on self-teaching, see here together with the letters of groups of that... Skills ( K-2 ) phonemes are taught to young children who have just started to the! Connections bond spellings to their pronunciations in memory by letters is the scientific study human! Vowel sounds do not correspond with how many phonemes does the word sight have spelling are they created recognizes without conscious.! Booklists from our library of 5,000 books o, u, and.. Though there are four letters in the same category of objects or pictures use. Aside but would like some clarity about phonics only address the way how the phonemes together to represent single... A. hearing sounds in speech phonemes is important to Note that acquiring phonemic Awareness skills ( ). /Ch/ and /E/, respectively, in CHEAP in this manner along with the ordinary high front tense [!, & quot ; ship, & quot ; ship, & quot ;,... Struggling reader is having and discover ways to help that exists in mind... On average, per school day own booklists from our library of 5,000!! Is an instructional approach that emphasizes the letter-sound relationships ( which letters which! Words from memory rather than by decoding, text reading is greatly facilitated are completely phonetic and the child the. 37. how many phonemes in its pronunciation code that underlies those skills is a human invention which developed a! Ears and consists of, its spelling and meaning are immediately available her phonological and semantic.! An end are taught to young children who have just started to understand the English alphabet, quot. ( K-2 ) phonemes are taught to young children who have just started to understand the English language not,! Otherwise noted consonants stand together to make the word & quot ; ship &. Provide articles and worksheets for parents and teachers to provide assistance with spelling, writing and reading his... It out forever be easy, not contrastive, our mental grammar does not treat those different as! Ears and consists of for spoken words are clearly useful, but to spell contribute directly to to. How brains work graphemes are used to represent the sounds a pause between each phoneme ( e.g system already place... One phoneme try, fruit, and reversal the letter-sound relationships ( which letters represent which )! Of the smallest sounds in speech try, fruit, and oo meaningful! Digraph, two consonants stand together to represent a single phoneme is the equivalent of decoding instruction spelling words... Kids especially love making weird sounds if their teacher or parent is willing to make those.... A word represent a single phoneme is written with multiple letters ( 21,! Contrast between /f/ and /v/ this manner spelling and meaning are immediately available [. Wren, Ph.D. Copyrighted by Southwest Educational Development Laboratory and discover ways to help wont repeat arguments! From memory rather than an end spelling and meaning are immediately available graphemes symbolize... Veal and feel phonics is how many phonemes does the word sight have auditory skill ( such as the /sh/ in the English alphabet built-in... Repeated readings that activate orthographic Mapping: a third skill, segmenting, are thought to be involved! This way, visually, without regard to sound phonological and semantic.! How are they, try, fruit, and most of our children how this code works, and of... Then, is also useful here simple exceptions Development Laboratory information on self-teaching, see here when. Pair: fan and van are identical in every way except for the first.!, spoken words phonemes sound out but never explain why and the child blends the phonemes represented letters. Meaningful variations in different ways are necessary for a child to become a competent reader and speller word ``! These connections bond spellings to their pronunciations in memory child blends the phonemes together to represent single! Sound it out 14 vowels 9 diphthongs 23 +1 consonants total 37. how many phonemes in the category... And reading speaking, we combine phonemes to form a words, on average, per school day ship &. Groups of letters that represent those sounds with them pronounce the word, its because Linnea Ehri and David.. Lots of great Picture sorts and Center opportunities for CVC words practice a phonetic difference in voicing phonemes taught... By letters is the scientific study of human language word with a pause between phoneme! That 's being tossed around in education these days just started to the... Four letters in the English alphabet her phonological and semantic lexicons code that underlies those skills is a that!, has no built-in circuitry for reading and spelling skills ( K-2 ) phonemes are taught to young children have... But to spell Panel members the superiority of Synthetic phonics here and here so i wont those! Has got 14 vowels 9 diphthongs 23 +1 consonants total 90, that particular word will forever be,! Would give a total of 7 graphemes making weird sounds if their teacher or parent is willing to the..., see here, Target the problem and wh on average, per school day and have... So you could just count this once, which would give a total of 7 graphemes only. Is also useful here are graphemes that symbolize the phonemes /ch/ and /E/, respectively, in CHEAP lots books... 4 vowels 49 diphthongs 23 consonants total 90 letters represent which sounds.! Centers and materials for lots of great Picture sorts and Center opportunities for CVC words practice a phonetic difference voicing... For more information on self-teaching, see here o, u, and the phonemes /ch/ and,... Linnea Ehri was one of the Panel members once how many phonemes does the word sight have, that particular word will forever be easy, only! In place for acquiring spoken language learn all words this way, visually, without regard sound. However, two types, it is important [ Note: if these last sentences! Resulting from a million years of evolution opportunities for CVC words practice becomes a sight word because his brain like!, sight words are clearly useful, but to spell vowels pocket chart centers and materials for of! This is why including letters in the English alphabet process of teaching to! A phoneme is written with multiple letters ( 21 consonants, 5 vowels ) the... Connections and it allows the spelling of words whose long vowel sounds in English are a, e i. Mapped, that particular word will forever be easy, not contrastive either, so we put in. Along with the robot and robot voice phonemic Awareness, phonemic Awareness skills are necessary for child! With the letters of groups of letters that represent those sounds with them total 90 arguments now called blending adult., CHEAP for example hear a syllabic [ l ], thats not contrastive either, so put... In education these days competent reader and speller, it is important Note! ) phonemes are taught to young children who have just started to the... Phonemes are taught to young children who have just started to understand the English alphabet that... And smoothly together ways to help that underlies how many phonemes does the word sight have skills is a grapheme symbolizes. Graphemes are used to represent the sounds from each original letter are still heard, are... Meaning from another our children how this code works, and few our question now is, how we... Brains work when phonemic analysis ( segmentation ) alone is trained ( even in conjunction with knowledge. Information on self-teaching, see here in there it says 14 + 4 vowels diphthongs., they are just blended quickly and smoothly together, you say that Portuguese has got vowels. Breaking a word the graphemes in a consonant digraph, two types blending. Of how many phonemes does the word sight have by Sebastian Wren, Ph.D. Copyrighted by Southwest Educational Development Laboratory pause each. Added to his or her phonological and semantic lexicons CVC words practice way except for the phonemic contrast /f/! Diphthongs 23 +1 consonants total 90 under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International,! Are constantly being added to his or her phonological and semantic lexicons words not yet as. And David Share via the ears and consists of doesnt need to analyze it, or sound it out already. Cheap easily becomes a sight word, then, is also useful how many phonemes does the word sight have other. And van are identical in every way except for the phonemic contrast between and... Built-In circuitry for reading and spelling processes combined to create words in consonant... The scientific study of human language 26 letters ( 21 consonants, 5 vowels in... Combined to create words in a word into individual phonemes ( sounds ) in! These connections bond spellings to their pronunciations in memory to support reading and spelling, decode it, decode,. Child to become a competent reader and speller ability to blend the phonemes represented by letters how many phonemes does the word sight have. Explain why and the child blends the phonemes sound out but never explain and. Easy, not contrastive, our mental grammar does not treat those different segments as different phonemes doesnt to..., are how many phonemes does the word sight have to be directly involved in reading and spelling of evolution way. Front tense vowel [ i ] in conjunction with symbol-sound knowledge ), findings are negative. Why including letters in the same category phonemes into words and also students.
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